AQA A-level Psychology · 4.1.4

Psychopathology

50 exam-style questions with answers for 4.1.4 Psychopathology in AQA A-level Psychology (spec 7182). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below.

All 50 questions and answers

Question 1 · Spec 4.1.4 · Definitions of abnormality
Outline statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality. [2 marks]
Answer:
Behaviour is abnormal if it is rare or uncommon, i.e. statistically unusual (1); e.g. an IQ below 70 is shown by about 2% of the population, and is one criterion for intellectual disability disorder (1).
Question 2 · Spec 4.1.4 · Definitions of abnormality
Explain one limitation of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality. [2 marks]
Answer:
Some unusual characteristics are desirable, e.g. a very high IQ is as rare as a very low IQ (1); so being statistically rare does not mean someone needs treatment (1).
Question 3 · Spec 4.1.4 · Definitions of abnormality
Explain one strength of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality. [2 marks]
Answer:
It has real-life application, e.g. in diagnosing intellectual disability disorder alongside other criteria (1); it is also objective, as behaviour can be measured against a statistical norm (1).
Question 4 · Spec 4.1.4 · Definitions of abnormality
Outline deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality. [2 marks]
Answer:
Behaviour is abnormal if it differs from the accepted standards (norms) of a society (1); e.g. antisocial personality disorder involves a failure to conform to lawful and culturally normal behaviour (1).
Question 5 · Spec 4.1.4 · Definitions of abnormality
Explain one limitation of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality. [2 marks]
Answer:
Social norms vary between cultures and over time, e.g. hearing voices is normal in some cultures (1); so a person may be wrongly diagnosed when assessed by norms from a different culture (1).
Question 6 · Spec 4.1.4 · Definitions of abnormality
Explain how the deviation from social norms definition could lead to human rights abuses. [2 marks]
Answer:
Labelling non-conformists as abnormal can be used to control people (1); e.g. drapetomania was used to describe enslaved people who ran away, and nymphomania to control women's sexuality (1).
Question 7 · Spec 4.1.4 · Definitions of abnormality
Outline failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality. [3 marks]
Answer:
A person is abnormal when they cannot cope with ordinary demands of everyday life (1); e.g. maintaining basic hygiene, holding down a job or keeping relationships (1); Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) added signs such as no longer conforming to interpersonal rules, severe distress and irrational or dangerous behaviour (1).
Question 8 · Spec 4.1.4 · Definitions of abnormality
Explain one limitation of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality. [2 marks]
Answer:
It is hard to judge what counts as a failure to function, as it is a subjective judgement (1); e.g. people who take part in extreme sports or choose an alternative lifestyle may be wrongly labelled (1).
Question 9 · Spec 4.1.4 · Definitions of abnormality
Outline deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality. [3 marks]
Answer:
Abnormality is a lack of the signs of good mental health (1); Jahoda (1958) listed criteria for ideal mental health (1); e.g. no symptoms of distress, rational and self-perceiving, self-actualisation, resistance to stress, independence, environmental mastery and an accurate perception of reality (1).
Question 10 · Spec 4.1.4 · Definitions of abnormality
Explain one limitation of deviation from ideal mental health. [2 marks]
Answer:
The criteria are unrealistically high, so most people would be classed as abnormal (1); and they are culture-bound, e.g. independence and self-actualisation reflect individualist values (1).
Question 11 · Spec 4.1.4 · Definitions of abnormality
Liam stays in bed for days, has stopped going to work and does not wash. Which definition of abnormality best applies? Explain your answer. [2 marks]
Answer:
Failure to function adequately (1); because he cannot cope with everyday demands such as working and personal hygiene (1).
Question 12 · Spec 4.1.4 · Phobias
Outline the behavioural characteristics of phobias. [3 marks]
Answer:
Panic: crying, screaming or running away when faced with the phobic stimulus (1); avoidance: going to great effort to avoid the phobic stimulus, which can interfere with daily life (1); endurance: staying in the presence of the stimulus while experiencing high anxiety (1).
Question 13 · Spec 4.1.4 · Phobias
Outline the emotional characteristics of phobias. [2 marks]
Answer:
Anxiety and fear: an unpleasant state of high arousal (1); the emotional response is unreasonable and out of proportion to the danger posed (1).
Question 14 · Spec 4.1.4 · Phobias
Outline the cognitive characteristics of phobias. [3 marks]
Answer:
Selective attention to the phobic stimulus, making it hard to concentrate on anything else (1); irrational beliefs about the stimulus, e.g. 'buttons are dangerous' (1); cognitive distortions, e.g. seeing a spider as larger or more threatening than it is (1).
Question 15 · Spec 4.1.4 · Depression
Outline the behavioural characteristics of depression. [3 marks]
Answer:
Reduced or increased activity levels, e.g. lethargy or psychomotor agitation (1); disruption to sleep, i.e. insomnia or hypersomnia, and to eating, i.e. reduced or increased appetite (1); aggression and self-harm, e.g. irritability or verbal aggression (1).
Question 16 · Spec 4.1.4 · Depression
Outline the emotional characteristics of depression. [2 marks]
Answer:
Lowered mood, i.e. feeling sad, worthless or empty (1); anger, directed at others or at the self, and lowered self-esteem (1).
Question 17 · Spec 4.1.4 · Depression
Outline the cognitive characteristics of depression. [3 marks]
Answer:
Poor concentration, e.g. being unable to stick with a task or make decisions (1); attending to and dwelling on the negative, ignoring positives (1); absolutist thinking, e.g. seeing an unfortunate situation as a total disaster (1).
Question 18 · Spec 4.1.4 · OCD
Outline the behavioural characteristics of obsessive-compulsive disorder. [3 marks]
Answer:
Compulsions are repetitive, e.g. handwashing, counting or checking (1); compulsions reduce anxiety caused by obsessions (1); avoidance of situations that trigger anxiety, e.g. avoiding contact with germs (1).
Question 19 · Spec 4.1.4 · OCD
Outline the emotional characteristics of obsessive-compulsive disorder. [2 marks]
Answer:
Obsessive thoughts cause severe anxiety and distress (1); and feelings of depression or guilt and disgust may accompany the anxiety (1).
Question 20 · Spec 4.1.4 · OCD
Outline the cognitive characteristics of obsessive-compulsive disorder. [3 marks]
Answer:
Obsessive thoughts that recur, e.g. worrying about having left a door unlocked (1); cognitive strategies to deal with obsessions, e.g. praying or meditating (1); insight into excessive anxiety: sufferers know their thoughts and behaviour are irrational (1).
Question 21 · Spec 4.1.4 · Two-process model
Outline the two-process model as an explanation of phobias. [4 marks]
Answer:
Mowrer (1960) proposed phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning (1); acquisition: an NS is associated with a UCS that causes fear, so the NS becomes a CS producing fear (1); maintenance: avoiding the phobic stimulus reduces fear, which is negatively reinforcing (1); so the avoidance behaviour is repeated and the phobia is maintained (1).
Question 22 · Spec 4.1.4 · Two-process model
Outline the case of Little Albert as evidence for classical conditioning of phobias. [3 marks]
Answer:
Watson and Rayner (1920) showed Albert, aged 11 months, a white rat (NS) (1); each time he reached for it a loud noise was made behind his head (UCS) causing fear (UCR) (1); after repeated pairing he showed fear of the rat alone (CR), and this generalised to other white furry objects (1).
Question 23 · Spec 4.1.4 · Two-process model
Explain one strength of the two-process model. [2 marks]
Answer:
It has practical application, as it led to behavioural therapies such as exposure therapy (1); if avoidance maintains the phobia, preventing avoidance should remove it, which is supported by the success of these treatments (1).
Question 24 · Spec 4.1.4 · Two-process model
Explain one limitation of the two-process model. [2 marks]
Answer:
It does not account for cognitive aspects of phobias, such as irrational beliefs (1); and it cannot explain why we develop phobias of things that have never harmed us, e.g. snakes; Seligman's biological preparedness suggests we are innately prepared to fear some stimuli (1).
Question 25 · Spec 4.1.4 · Systematic desensitisation
Outline systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias. [4 marks]
Answer:
A behavioural therapy that gradually reduces phobic anxiety through counterconditioning (1); the patient and therapist create an anxiety hierarchy from least to most frightening situations (1); the patient is taught relaxation techniques such as breathing exercises or meditation (1); the patient works up the hierarchy while relaxed, as relaxation and anxiety cannot exist together (reciprocal inhibition) (1).
Question 26 · Spec 4.1.4 · Systematic desensitisation
Explain one strength of systematic desensitisation. [2 marks]
Answer:
Research shows it is effective, e.g. Gilroy et al. (2003) found patients with spider phobia treated with SD were less fearful than a control group at 3 and 33 months (1); it is also suitable for people with learning disabilities, who may struggle with cognitive therapies (1).
Question 27 · Spec 4.1.4 · Flooding
Outline flooding as a treatment for phobias. [3 marks]
Answer:
The patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus immediately and in its most frightening form, without a gradual build-up (1); they are prevented from avoiding it, so they learn quickly that the stimulus is harmless (1); fear is exhausted and the phobia becomes extinct, often in one long session of 2–3 hours (1).
Question 28 · Spec 4.1.4 · Flooding
Explain one limitation of flooding compared with systematic desensitisation. [2 marks]
Answer:
Flooding is highly traumatic, so patients must give fully informed consent (1); many quit before the end of treatment, wasting time and money and leaving the phobia untreated (1).
Question 29 · Spec 4.1.4 · Flooding
Explain one strength of flooding. [2 marks]
Answer:
It is cost-effective, as it can work in just one session compared with many sessions of SD (1); so more patients can be treated for the same cost (1).
Question 30 · Spec 4.1.4 · Beck
Outline Beck's negative triad as an explanation of depression. [4 marks]
Answer:
Beck (1967) proposed some people are more cognitively vulnerable to depression (1); faulty information processing: they attend to negatives and ignore positives (1); negative self-schemas lead them to interpret information about themselves negatively (1); the negative triad is negative views of the self, the world and the future (1).
Question 31 · Spec 4.1.4 · Beck
Explain one strength of Beck's explanation of depression. [2 marks]
Answer:
Clark and Beck (1999) found cognitive vulnerabilities such as faulty processing appear before depression develops (1); this suggests the cognitions may cause depression rather than result from it (1).
Question 32 · Spec 4.1.4 · Ellis
Outline Ellis's ABC model as an explanation of depression. [3 marks]
Answer:
A: an activating event, a negative event such as failing an exam (1); B: belief, the irrational belief about the event, e.g. 'I must always succeed' (musturbation) (1); C: consequence, an emotional and behavioural response such as depression (1).
Question 33 · Spec 4.1.4 · Ellis
Explain one limitation of Ellis's ABC model. [2 marks]
Answer:
It only explains reactive depression triggered by an activating event (1); but much depression has no obvious trigger, so the model is only a partial explanation (1).
Question 34 · Spec 4.1.4 · Cognitive approach
Explain one limitation of cognitive explanations of depression. [2 marks]
Answer:
They do not explain all aspects of depression, e.g. extreme anger or hallucinations seen in some patients (1); and they may blame the patient, overlooking situational factors such as poverty or abuse (1).
Question 35 · Spec 4.1.4 · CBT
Outline cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) as a treatment for depression. [4 marks]
Answer:
CBT starts with an assessment, where patient and therapist identify goals and negative thoughts (1); Beck's cognitive therapy identifies negative thoughts about the self, world and future and challenges them (1); the patient may test the reality of thoughts as 'homework', e.g. recording when they enjoyed an event (1); Ellis's REBT extends ABC to ABCDE, where D is dispute and E is effect, e.g. challenging irrational beliefs through logical, empirical or pragmatic disputing (1).
Question 36 · Spec 4.1.4 · CBT
Name three types of disputing used in Ellis's REBT. [3 marks]
Answer:
Empirical disputing: is there evidence for the belief? (1); logical disputing: does the thought follow logically from the facts? (1); pragmatic disputing: is the belief useful? (1).
Question 37 · Spec 4.1.4 · CBT
Outline one study supporting the effectiveness of CBT for depression. [3 marks]
Answer:
March et al. (2007) compared CBT, antidepressants and both combined in 327 depressed adolescents (1); after 36 weeks 81% of the CBT group and 81% of the antidepressant group had significantly improved (1); 86% of the combined group improved, so CBT was as effective as drugs (1).
Question 38 · Spec 4.1.4 · CBT
Explain one limitation of CBT as a treatment for depression. [2 marks]
Answer:
CBT relies on the patient being motivated and able to engage with the therapy (1); severely depressed patients may be unable to concentrate or attend sessions, so it may be unsuitable for them (1).
Question 39 · Spec 4.1.4 · CBT
What is behavioural activation, and how is it used in CBT? [2 marks]
Answer:
Encouraging the depressed person to gradually return to activities they used to enjoy (1); this provides positive experiences that challenge negative beliefs, e.g. that nothing is enjoyable (1).
Question 40 · Spec 4.1.4 · Genetic explanation
Outline the genetic explanation of OCD. [3 marks]
Answer:
OCD may be inherited through candidate genes, which create vulnerability (1); e.g. COMT, which regulates dopamine, and SERT, which affects serotonin transport (1); OCD is polygenic, so many genes (up to 230, according to Taylor 2013) are involved, and different combinations may cause it in different people (aetiologically heterogeneous) (1).
Question 41 · Spec 4.1.4 · Genetic explanation
Outline research support for the genetic explanation of OCD. [2 marks]
Answer:
Nestadt et al. (2010) reviewed twin studies and found 68% of identical (MZ) twins shared OCD compared with 31% of non-identical (DZ) twins (1); this suggests a genetic influence, as MZ twins share 100% of their genes (1).
Question 42 · Spec 4.1.4 · Genetic explanation
Explain one limitation of the genetic explanation of OCD. [2 marks]
Answer:
Concordance in MZ twins is not 100%, so environmental factors must also play a role (1); e.g. Cromer et al. (2007) found over half of OCD patients had experienced a traumatic event (1).
Question 43 · Spec 4.1.4 · Neural explanation
Outline the neural explanation of OCD. [3 marks]
Answer:
Low levels of serotonin are linked to OCD, disrupting mood regulation (1); abnormal functioning of the frontal lobes, especially the orbitofrontal cortex, which converts sensory information into thoughts and actions (1); this forms a 'worry circuit' with the caudate nucleus and thalamus, so worry signals are not suppressed (1).
Question 44 · Spec 4.1.4 · Neural explanation
Explain one limitation of the neural explanation of OCD. [2 marks]
Answer:
Some neural differences may be a result of OCD rather than a cause (1); and other disorders such as depression also involve low serotonin, so it may not be specific to OCD (1).
Question 45 · Spec 4.1.4 · Drug therapy
Outline drug therapy as a treatment for OCD. [4 marks]
Answer:
Drug therapy aims to increase or decrease levels of neurotransmitters (1); SSRIs such as fluoxetine prevent the reabsorption of serotonin by the presynaptic neuron (1); this increases serotonin in the synapse, so it continues to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron (1); if SSRIs do not work, tricyclics such as clomipramine may be used, often alongside CBT (1).
Question 46 · Spec 4.1.4 · Drug therapy
Explain one strength of drug therapy for OCD. [2 marks]
Answer:
There is good evidence of effectiveness, e.g. Soomro et al. (2008) found SSRIs were more effective than placebos in reducing symptoms (1); drugs are also cost-effective and non-disruptive, as patients can carry on with daily life (1).
Question 47 · Spec 4.1.4 · Drug therapy
Explain one limitation of drug therapy for OCD. [2 marks]
Answer:
Drugs can have side effects, such as indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive, so some patients stop taking them (1); and drugs treat the symptoms, not the cause, so symptoms may return when they stop (1).
Question 48 · Spec 4.1.4 · Drug therapy
Explain why research into drug therapies for OCD may be biased. [2 marks]
Answer:
Much drug research is funded by pharmaceutical companies, which profit from positive results (1); so studies may be designed or reported in ways that exaggerate effectiveness (1).
Question 49 · Spec 4.1.4 · Treatments
A therapist asks a client with a fear of dogs to rank situations from 'looking at a photo of a dog' to 'stroking a large dog'. Identify this therapy and explain the purpose of the ranking. [3 marks]
Answer:
Systematic desensitisation (1); the ranking is an anxiety hierarchy (1); the client works through it step by step while relaxed, so fear is gradually replaced by relaxation (1).
Question 50 · Spec 4.1.4 · Treatments
Compare the approaches used to treat phobias, depression and OCD. [3 marks]
Answer:
Phobias: behavioural therapies such as SD and flooding target learned behaviour (1); depression: CBT targets faulty thinking (1); OCD: drug therapy targets biological causes such as low serotonin (1).

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