AQA A-level Geography · 3.2.3

Urban forms and social and economic issues

50 exam-style questions with answers for 3.2.3 Urban forms and social and economic issues in AQA A-level Geography (spec 7037). Practise with flashcards, a topic quiz, a random quiz across the course, 5 crosswords, or read every question and answer below.

All 50 questions and answers

Question 1 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Urban forms
Describe the characteristics of the urban form of a world city such as London. [4 marks]
Answer:
Any four from: a dense central business district with tall office buildings (1); a mix of land uses, including finance, retail, culture and housing (1); wide differences in housing quality and wealth between districts (1); extensive public transport networks, such as the Underground and Elizabeth line (1); suburbs and commuter towns surrounding the city, with a green belt (1); cultural and ethnic diversity shown in districts, shops and places of worship (1).
Question 2 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Urban forms
Explain how physical factors influence urban form. [3 marks]
Answer:
Relief affects where building takes place, as steep slopes and mountains confine cities such as Rio de Janeiro and Hong Kong (1); rivers and coasts influence the site of ports, bridges and settlements, and flood risk limits building on floodplains (1); geology and soils affect construction, for example the unstable ground in earthquake zones and the supply of building materials (1).
Question 3 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Urban forms
Explain how human factors influence urban form. [3 marks]
Answer:
History shapes street patterns and buildings, such as medieval cores and Victorian terraces (1); land values and competition for space determine which land uses occupy the centre (1); planning policy, transport routes, income and culture influence where different groups live (1).
Question 4 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Urban forms
Describe the main features of the Burgess concentric zone model. [3 marks]
Answer:
The city is a series of rings around the CBD (1); zones are the CBD, a zone of transition, working-class housing, middle-class housing and the commuter zone (1); land values and housing quality improve with distance from the centre (1).
Question 5 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Urban forms
Explain the limitations of the Burgess model. [2 marks]
Answer:
It was developed for early 20th-century Chicago and does not fit cities with different histories and planning (1); it ignores transport routes, multiple business centres and physical constraints, and does not fit modern cities (1).
Question 6 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Urban forms
Describe the Hoyt sector model of urban land use. [2 marks]
Answer:
Land use grows outwards in wedge-shaped sectors along main transport routes (1); similar land uses such as industry or high-class housing extend in the same sector from the centre to the edge (1).
Question 7 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Urban forms
Explain bid-rent theory. [3 marks]
Answer:
Land values are highest in the centre where accessibility is greatest (1); retailers and offices can afford to pay the highest rents and so occupy the centre (1); industry and housing, which need more space, locate where rents are lower, further out (1).
Question 8 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Urban forms
Describe the characteristics of a central business district. [3 marks]
Answer:
High land values and rents, and high-rise buildings (1); a concentration of shops, offices, banks and entertainment (1); high accessibility with transport hubs, and a low resident population (1).
Question 9 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Urban forms
Describe the characteristics of cities in developing countries such as those in Latin America. [3 marks]
Answer:
A CBD with high-rise buildings and wealthy residential areas often close to it or in a sector from it (1); large areas of informal settlements, often on steep slopes, floodplains or the edge of the city (1); a mix of formal and informal economies with major differences in wealth and services between areas (1).
Question 10 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Urban forms
Compare the urban form of London with that of Mumbai. [4 marks]
Answer:
London is more regulated and planned, with a green belt and zoned land use, whereas Mumbai has large unplanned informal areas (1); Mumbai is much denser, with tens of thousands of people per square kilometre in some districts (1); Mumbai is constrained by its position on a peninsula, which raises land values in the south (1); London has more extensive public transport coverage, while Mumbai's rail network is heavily overcrowded (1).
Question 11 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Patterns of inequality
Describe the pattern of land use and wealth in Rio de Janeiro. [3 marks]
Answer:
Wealthy neighbourhoods such as Ipanema and Leblon lie on the coast in the south zone (1); favelas such as Rocinha are built on steep hillsides, often near wealthy areas (1); the poorest and newest settlements are in the north and west and on the edge of the city, with the longest journeys to work (1).
Question 12 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Patterns of inequality
Describe the pattern of inequality in Johannesburg. [3 marks]
Answer:
Wealthy northern suburbs such as Sandton have large houses, security and business districts (1); townships such as Soweto and Alexandra were created under apartheid and are still poorer, with informal housing (1); Alexandra lies right next to Sandton, so extreme wealth and poverty are close together (1).
Question 13 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Patterns of inequality
Describe the pattern of economic inequality in London. [3 marks]
Answer:
Deprivation is highest in parts of the east and inner east, such as Tower Hamlets, Newham and Hackney (1); wealth is concentrated in the west and centre, in districts such as Kensington and Chelsea (1); life expectancy and income differ between areas that are just a few Tube stops apart (1).
Question 14 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Patterns of inequality
Describe the measures used to show inequality within a city. [3 marks]
Answer:
The Index of Multiple Deprivation ranks small areas using income, employment, health and other measures (1); life expectancy and health outcomes can be compared between wards (1); house price-to-earnings ratios, unemployment and educational attainment can also be mapped (1).
Question 15 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Segregation
Define social segregation and explain its causes. [3 marks]
Answer:
The separation of groups, based on income, ethnicity or religion, into different parts of a city (1); house prices and rents mean people live where they can afford (1); discrimination, chain migration to areas with family and cultural ties, and government policy also cause segregation (1).
Question 16 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Segregation
Explain how government policy has caused segregation in cities. [3 marks]
Answer:
Under apartheid in South Africa, the Group Areas Act forced people to live in areas set by race (1); in the USA, redlining from the 1930s marked minority areas as high risk, so they could not get mortgages (1); the location of social housing can concentrate poorer people in particular areas (1).
Question 17 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Cultural diversity
Explain the role of ethnic enclaves such as Chinatowns in cities. [3 marks]
Answer:
They provide familiar food, language, services and support for new migrants (1); they preserve culture and become tourist attractions (1); they can cause isolation from the wider community if residents are excluded from jobs and housing elsewhere (1).
Question 18 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Cultural diversity
Describe how cultural diversity is shown in the urban landscape. [3 marks]
Answer:
Places of worship such as mosques, temples and gurdwaras (1); shops, restaurants and markets selling food and goods from many cultures (1); street signs in other languages, festivals such as Diwali and Notting Hill Carnival, and murals (1).
Question 19 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Cultural diversity
Explain the opportunities and challenges of cultural diversity in cities. [4 marks]
Answer:
Diversity brings a wider choice of food, culture and ideas and attracts tourists (1); migrants fill jobs and start businesses, boosting the economy (1); challenges include language barriers and discrimination (1); competition for housing and jobs can cause tension between groups (1).
Question 20 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · New urban landscapes
Describe the features of town centre mixed developments, using an example. [3 marks]
Answer:
Liverpool One (2008) combines shops, restaurants, cinemas, offices and apartments on a former car park and bus station (1); streets are open and designed to link the retail area with the waterfront and the rest of the city (1); it is privately owned and managed, with its own security and rules (1).
Question 21 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · New urban landscapes
Describe the characteristics of cultural and heritage quarters. [3 marks]
Answer:
Areas with historic buildings, galleries, independent shops and cafes, such as Manchester's Northern Quarter and Birmingham's Jewellery Quarter (1); redevelopment is based on reuse of old buildings and local history (1); they attract tourists and creative businesses but rising rents can push out original businesses (1).
Question 22 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · New urban landscapes
Define fortress developments and give an example. [2 marks]
Answer:
Secure areas, such as gated communities, with walls, fences, CCTV and private security (1); examples are Alphaville in São Paulo and wealthy gated estates in Johannesburg (1).
Question 23 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · New urban landscapes
Explain the impacts of gated communities on cities. [3 marks]
Answer:
Residents gain a feeling of security and exclusivity, and property values are protected (1); public space shrinks and the wider city is cut up, making movement harder (1); they increase segregation, with less contact between social groups and more fear of crime outside (1).
Question 24 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · New urban landscapes
Describe the features of gentrified areas. [3 marks]
Answer:
Older housing is renovated and house prices and rents rise (1); independent cafes, boutiques and galleries replace traditional shops (1); the population becomes wealthier, younger and better educated (1).
Question 25 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · New urban landscapes
Describe how Shoreditch and Hackney in east London have been gentrified. [3 marks]
Answer:
Artists and creative businesses moved into cheap former warehouses from the 1990s (1); a technology cluster developed around Old Street, sometimes called Silicon Roundabout (1); rents and prices rose, and long-standing residents and small traders were priced out (1).
Question 26 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · New urban landscapes
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of gentrification. [4 marks]
Answer:
Run-down areas are improved and derelict buildings are reused (1); investment and spending rise, and the council receives higher tax income (1); however, rents and prices rise so that existing residents are displaced (1); the character of the area and community ties may be lost (1).
Question 27 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · New urban landscapes
Describe the characteristics of an edge city. [3 marks]
Answer:
A large concentration of offices, shops and entertainment on the outskirts of a city, near motorways or airports (1); Tysons Corner in Virginia, outside Washington DC, is an example, and Canary Wharf is sometimes described in this way (1); it was originally mostly commuters but grew its own employment and services (1).
Question 28 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · New urban landscapes
Describe the concept of the post-modern western city. [4 marks]
Answer:
Cities are fragmented, with different districts for different groups and functions (1); there is no single centre but several centres (a polycentric city) and edge cities (1); consumption, leisure and themed spaces such as malls and entertainment districts are important (1); security, privatised public spaces and gated communities are common features (1).
Question 29 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · New urban landscapes
Explain why Los Angeles is used as an example of a post-modern city. [3 marks]
Answer:
Growth is spread out in a sprawl across many centres without a single dominant CBD (1); it has themed developments such as Hollywood and Universal CityWalk and fortified gated areas (1); it has large cultural diversity, with distinct ethnic districts and sharp inequality (1).
Question 30 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Informal settlements
Explain the causes and characteristics of informal settlements. [4 marks]
Answer:
Rapid migration exceeds the supply of affordable housing (1); migrants cannot afford formal housing, so they build on land they do not own (1); homes are built from scrap materials with no legal title (1); they lack water, sanitation, electricity and roads, and are overcrowded and at risk from floods or landslides (1).
Question 31 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Compare in situ upgrading with relocation of slum dwellers. [4 marks]
Answer:
In situ upgrading improves services and homes in the existing settlement (1); it keeps communities and jobs together and costs less (1); relocation moves people to new housing, often at the edge of the city (1); it may break up communities and be far from work, but frees land for development (1).
Question 32 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Describe the Favela-Bairro programme in Rio de Janeiro. [3 marks]
Answer:
Launched in the 1990s, it aimed to bring favelas into the formal city (1); it installed water, sewers, paved streets, lighting and community facilities (1); residents were given legal recognition of their homes in many cases (1).
Question 33 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Describe the Slum Rehabilitation Scheme in Mumbai. [3 marks]
Answer:
Launched in the 1990s to replace slums with apartment blocks (1); developers are allowed extra floor space to sell for profit if they rehouse the slum dwellers free (1); critics say the flats are small, and residents may lose businesses and have to leave if they cannot prove eligibility (1).
Question 34 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Explain how Medellín tried to reduce inequality and segregation. [4 marks]
Answer:
The Metrocable cable cars from 2004 linked hillside neighbourhoods to the city centre (1); new libraries, parks and schools were built in poorer areas (1); improved connections reduced travel times and increased access to jobs (1); crime fell, although inequality remains and some areas still suffer from gangs (1).
Question 35 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Explain the impact of Right to Buy on housing in Britain's cities. [3 marks]
Answer:
Since 1980 it has allowed council tenants to buy their homes at a discount, and over two million homes have been sold (1); home ownership increased, but many homes were not replaced, so social housing waiting lists grew (1); former council homes are often now rented privately at higher rents (1).
Question 36 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Explain how planning can increase the supply of affordable housing. [3 marks]
Answer:
Section 106 agreements require developers to include affordable homes in new schemes (1); councils can build or support social housing and use brownfield land (1); the quantity delivered is often less than needed, because developers may argue that affordable housing makes a scheme unprofitable (1).
Question 37 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Explain how mixed tenure developments can reduce segregation. [2 marks]
Answer:
Housing of different types and prices, such as private and social, is built in the same area (1); this encourages people of different incomes to live and mix in the same neighbourhoods and share facilities (1).
Question 38 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Explain the causes of the housing affordability problem in London. [3 marks]
Answer:
Demand is high because of jobs, migration and overseas investment (1); the supply of new homes has been below the number needed, with limits on land due to the green belt (1); house prices have risen much faster than wages, so many cannot buy or must pay high rents (1).
Question 39 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
The average house price in a city is £420,000 and the average annual earnings are £35,000. Calculate the house price to earnings ratio. [2 marks]
Answer:
£420,000 ÷ £35,000 (1); 12 (1).
Question 40 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Describe how Singapore manages ethnic diversity in housing. [3 marks]
Answer:
About four out of five Singaporeans live in public housing built by the Housing and Development Board (1); the Ethnic Integration Policy sets limits on the proportion of each ethnic group in each block and neighbourhood (1); this prevents the formation of ethnic enclaves and encourages mixing, but limits the choice of buyers (1).
Question 41 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Describe the role of social housing in Vienna. [3 marks]
Answer:
About half of residents live in housing owned or supported by the city (1); rents are affordable and the housing is of good quality for a range of incomes, not only the poorest (1); this has kept rents lower and reduced segregation compared with other European cities (1).
Question 42 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Explain how laws and policies can help to manage cultural diversity. [3 marks]
Answer:
Anti-discrimination laws, such as the Equality Act 2010 in the UK, protect people in jobs and housing (1); language support, community centres and shared events help integration (1); policing and education policies can build trust between communities and the authorities (1).
Question 43 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Explain how economic inequality in cities can be reduced. [3 marks]
Answer:
A living wage and support for training and apprenticeships raise incomes (1); investment in schools, health and transport in poorer areas improves opportunities (1); area-based regeneration and support for local businesses create jobs for local people (1).
Question 44 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Strategies
Explain how planning can make cities more inclusive. [3 marks]
Answer:
Public spaces, parks and transport can be designed to be accessible and safe for all groups (1); affordable housing can be mixed with market housing (1); local people can be involved in planning decisions through consultation and neighbourhood plans (1).
Question 45 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Issues
Explain why economic inequality and social segregation are linked. [3 marks]
Answer:
Households on low incomes can afford only cheaper housing, which concentrates them in particular areas (1); schools, services and jobs in these areas may be of poorer quality, which reproduces inequality (1); wealthier groups may choose to separate themselves through gated communities and private schools (1).
Question 46 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Issues
Explain what is meant by social exclusion. [2 marks]
Answer:
When people are unable to take part fully in society because of poverty, discrimination or poor access to services (1); examples are long journeys to work, lack of broadband and being unable to afford housing in good areas (1).
Question 47 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Evaluation
Evaluate the extent to which gentrification benefits a city. [4 marks]
Answer:
It brings investment, improved buildings and spending in run-down areas (1); it creates jobs and increases tax revenue for services (1); but long-term residents may be displaced as rents rise (1); the gains depend on whether affordable housing and local jobs are protected (1).
Question 48 · Spec 3.2.3.3 · Evaluation
Assess the success of strategies to manage inequality and segregation in a city that you have studied. [6 marks]
Answer:
Investment in transport and public services, as in Medellín, has improved access for poorer areas (1); upgrading informal settlements gives people security and services (1); mixed-tenure housing, as in Vienna and Singapore, reduces segregation (1); however, benefits may be uneven, because gentrification can push up rents and displace people (1); strategies take a long time, and depend on funding and political support (1); success varies by what is measured, as living conditions may improve while inequality remains high (1).
Question 49 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · Urban forms
Explain what is meant by the zone in transition. [2 marks]
Answer:
The area around the CBD with a mix of older housing, small industry and derelict land (1); it is subject to decline or redevelopment, and often has high deprivation and many migrants (1).
Question 50 · Spec 3.2.3.2 · New urban landscapes
Explain why fortress developments have increased in cities such as São Paulo and Johannesburg. [3 marks]
Answer:
Fear of crime and high inequality lead wealthier people to seek security (1); weak policing and public services mean residents pay for private security (1); gated developments offer status, and services such as shops, schools and leisure inside the walls (1).

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